Zoology

Morphography includes the systematic exploration and tabulation of the facts involved in the recognition of all the recent and extinct kinds of animals and their distribution in space and time.  The museummakers of old days and their modern representatives the curators and describers of zoological collections,  early explorers and modern naturalist travelers and writers comprise zoogeography, and  collectors of fossils and paleontologists are the chief varieties of zoological workers coming under this heading. Gradually, since the time of Hunter and Cuvier, anatomical study has associated itself wre superficial morphography until today no one considers a study of animal form of any value which does not include internal structure, histology and embryology in its scope and limitation. This study also includes the study of human beings in the environment which eventually branch off into psychology.The study of animal life is ancient: but as zoology it is relatively modern, for what we call biology was known as natural history at the start of the nineteenth century. During the lifetime of Charles Darwin, natural history turned from a gentlemanly pursuit to a modern scientific activity.

Zoology as we know it was first established in German and British universities. The institution of zoology training in British universities was mainly established by Thomas Henry Huxley. His ideas were centered on the morphology of animals: he himself is considered by many to have been the greatest comparative anatomist of the second half of the nineteenth century. His courses were composed of lectures and laboratory practical classes and his system became widely spread.There was much left out by Huxley, especially the study of animals in their environment, which had been the main stimulus for both Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace who both came up with the idea of natural selection. The fact that neither Darwin nor Wallace ever held a university teaching post may have contributed to this rather startling omission. Gradually Huxleys comparative anatomy was suppleThe various taxonomicallyoriented disciplines such as mammalogy, herpetology, ornithology identify and classify species, and study the structures and mechanisms specific to those groups. Entomology is the study of insects, by far the largest group of animals.mented by other muchneeded methods.

                     Divisions of applied mathematics

There is no consensus of what the various branches of applied mathematics are. Such categorizations are made difficult by the way mathematics and science change over time, and also by the way universities organize departments, courses, and degrees.Historically, applied mathematics consisted principally of applied analysis, most notably differential equations, approximation theory broadly construed, to include representations, asymptotic methods, variational methods, and numerical analysis, and applied probability. These areas of mathematics were intimately tied to the development of Newtonian Physics, and in fact the distinction between mathematicians and physicists was not sharply drawn before the midth century. This history left a legacy as well until the early th century subjects such as classical mechanics were often taught in applied mathematics departments at American universities rather than in physics departments, and fluid mechanics may still be taught in applied mathematics departments.Today, the term applied mathematics is used in a broader sense. It includes the classical areas above, as well as other areas that have become increasingly important in applications. Even fields such as number theory that are part of pure mathematics are now important in applications such as cryptology, though they are not generally considered to be part of the field of applied mathematics per se.

Sometimes the term applicable mathematics is used to distinguish between the traditional field of applied mathematics and the many more areas of mathematics that are applicable to realworld problems.Mathematicians distinguish between applied mathematics, which is concerned with mathematical methods, and the applications of mathematics within science and engineering. A biologist using a population model and applying known mathematics would not be doing applied mathematics, but rather using it. However, nonmathematicians do not usually draw this distinction. The use of mathematics to solve industrial problems is called industrial mathematics. Industrial mathematics is sometimes split in two branches: technomathematics covering problems coming from technology and economathematics for problems in economy and finance.The success of modern numerical mathematical methods and software has led to the emergence of computational mathematics, computational science, and computational engineering, which use high performance computing for the simulation of phenomena and solution of problems in the sciences and engineering. These are often considered interdisciplinary programs.

                                        Etymology

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first known historical meaning of the word information in English was the act of informing, or giving form or shape to the mind, as in education, instruction, or training. A quote from : Five books come down from heaven for information of mankind. It was also used for an item of training, e.g. a particular instruction. Melibee had heard the great skills and reasons of Dame Prudence, and her wise information and techniques. The English word was apparently derived by adding the common noun of action ending ation descended through French from Latin tio to the earlier verb to inform, in the sense of to give form to the mind, to discipline, instruct, teach: Men so wise should go and inform their kings.  Inform itself comes via French from the Latin verb informare, to give form to, to form an idea of. Furthermore, Latin itself already even contained the word informatio meaning concept or idea, but the extent to which this may have influenced the development of the word information in English is unclear.As a final note, the ancient Greek word for form was µf morf > morphe, Morph and also ed eidos kind, idea, shape, set, the later word was famously used in a technical philosophical sense by Plato and later Aristotle to denote the ideal identity or essence of something see Theory of forms. Eidos can also be associated with thought, proposition or even concept.

Information is a term with many meanings depending on context, but is as a rule closely related to such concepts as meaning, knowledge, instruction, communication, representation, and mental stimulus. Simply stated, information is a message received and understood. In terms of data, it can be defined as a collection of facts from which conclusions may be drawn. There are many other aspects of information since it is the knowledge acquired through study or experience or instruction. But overall, information is the result of processing, manipulating and organizing data in a way that adds to the knowledge of the person receiving it.Information is the state of a system of interest. Message is the information materialized.Information is a quality of a message from a sender to one or more receivers. Information is always about something size of a parameter, occurrence of an event, value, ethics, etc. Viewed in this manner, information does not have to be accurate it may be a truth or a lie, or just the sound of a falling tree. Even a disruptive noise used to inhibit the flow of communication and create misunderstanding would in this view be a form of information. However, generally speaking, if the amount of information in the received message increases, the message is more accurate.

                                    Paleontology

Paleontology British: palaeontologyderivation  is the study of prehistoric life, including organisms evolution and interactions with each other and their environments their paleoecology. As a historical science it tries to explain causes rather than conduct experiments to observe effects. Although th century BC and medieval thinkers made what would now be called paleontological observations, the science became established in the th century as a result of Georges Cuviers work on comparative anatomy, and developed rapidly in the th century. Fossils found in China since the s have provided new information about the earliest evolution of animals, early fish, dinosaurs and the evolution of birds and mammals. Paleontology lies on the border between biology and geology, and also shares with archeology a border that is difficult to define. It now uses techniques drawn from a wide range of sciences, including biochemistry, mathematics and engineering. As knowledge has increased, paleontology has also developed specialized subdivisons, some of which focus on different types of fossil organisms while others study ecological and environmental history, such as ancient climates.

Body fossils and trace fossils are the principal types of evidence about ancient life, and geochemical evidence has helped to decipher the evolution of life before there were organisms large enough to leave fossils. Estimating the dates of these remains is essential but difficult: sometimes adjacent rock layers allow radiometric dating, which provide absolute dates that are accurate to within ., but more often paleontologists have to rely on relative dating by solving the jigsaw puzzles of biostratigraphy. Classifying ancient organisms is also difficult, as many do not fit well into the Linnean taxonomy that is commonly used for classifying living organisms, and paleontologists more often use cladistics to draw up evolutionary family trees. The final quarter of the th century saw the development of molecular phylogenetics, which investigates how closely organisms are related by measuring how similar the DNA is in their genomes. Molecular phylogenetics has also been used to estimate the dates when species diverged, but there is controversy about the reliability of the molecular clock on which such estimates depend.

                                A historical science

Paleontology is one of the historical sciences, along with archaeology, geology, biology, astronomy, cosmogony, philology and history itself. This means that it aims to describe phenomena of the past and reconstruct their causes. Hence it has three main elements: description of the phenomena developing a general theory about the causes of various types of change and applying those theories to specific facts.When trying to explain past phenomena, paleontologists and other historical scientists often construct a set of hypotheses about the causes and then look for a smoking gun, a piece of evidence which indicates that one of the hypotheses is a better explanation than the others. Sometimes the smoking gun is discovered by a fortunate accident during other research, for example the discovery by Luis Alvarez and Walter Alvarez of an iridiumrich layer at the CretaceousTertiary boundary made asteroid impact and volcanism the most favored explanations for the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event.

The other main type of science is experimental science, which is often said to work by conducting experiments to disprove hypotheses about the workings and causes of natural phenomena – note that this approach cannot prove a hypothesis is correct, since some later experiment may disprove it. However, when confronted with totally unexpected phenomena, such as the first evidence for invisible radiation, experimental scientists often use the same approach as historical scientists: construct a set of hypotheses about tThe simplest definition is the study of ancient life Paleontology seeks information about several aspects of past organisms: their identity and origin, their environment and evolution, and what they can tell us about the Earths organic and inorganic past.he causes and then look for a smoking gun.Paleontology lies on the boundary between biology and geology since paleontology focuses on the record of past life in fossils, its main source of evidence, which are found in rocks. For historical reasons paleontology is part of the geology departments of many universities, because in the th and early th centuries geology departments found paleontological evidence important for estimating the ages of rocks while biology departments showed little interest.